
         SOFWARE - PRACTICE AND EXPERIENCE, VOL. 17(8),
                      503-512 (AUGUST 1987)



                  

                         ++.


                       STEPHEN C.DEWHURST
         AT&T, 190 River road, Summit, NJ 07901, U.S.A.




                            


       ணࠬ஢ ++  ࠧ⨥ 몠 ,
    ᮢ襭 㣨 ࠢ  .  
   ᠭ  ⥩  ++  ᢥ饭
  室   ᯥ᪨  ࠭樨 ++ ஡
  ।⠢ ⥩   ⠡ ᨬ  ।
  ᫥⥫쭮 ⨢樨 ஢  室  
  . 襭, ।⠢ , ᭮ 
  樮 拉     ++  
  易 ꥪ⮢ .

    : ++         

     ++ - ⢥   ணࠬ஢ [1]. ।
   ᮢ६ 몠 ணࠬ஢, 
  ࠪ , ॣ㧪  権, 뢠
  ଠ樨,    ६ ⠢  ⭮  ᮢ⨬
   몮 , ++  ᮬ 蠣 ।.  ⮩ 
  ᢥ 室   ᯥ᪨ ஡ ࠭樨 ++ :
  ।⠢ ⥩   ⠡ ᨬ  ।
  ᫥⥫쭮 ⨢樨 ஢  室  
  . 孨, 뢠 , ᯮ짮  ॠ樨
   ++   ᢮   䥪⨢.
     뢠  ணࠬ஢ ++   ⥭
   室 । ⢮  몮.  室 
   ⮫쪮   몠,  室 
  樨 孨.



  () 1987 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.          Received 6 July 1986

                                               Revised 7 January 1987

                            ++.

      ++  ࠧ⨥ 몠 ,   ᮢ襭
  㣨 ࠢ  .
         ᭮  筮  [2].
   ࠧ,  ⠥ ।  窨,  
   ,   ,    
      㣮   ⥬  䨪஬  ⮬ 
     .    ᨫ
  ⢮ ࠭ ,  ࠫ쭮  ᫥ ⮩
   ᠬ 筮 ;   䨪  
      ⭮, ᫨    
    ⮬  ࠭⢥ . ࠭⢠    
  ࠭⢮   몮 , ꥤ 
  ᫨ ⨯, ࠭⢠     
  ꥤ,  ࠭⢮   ⠫ , ᪫
  ⪨. ⪨ ନ ᢮ ᮡ⢥ ࠭⢮ ,  
  쭥襬  , ⠪   ࠢ 
  ⫨  ࠢ   ⠫ .
       ࠧ ࠭    ⥬ 
  䨪஬ ᯮ    ᨭ⠪᪮
  樨 [3]. ਬ, ࠣ  s r t r u c t  C 
  ᬠਢ   䨪  ࠭⢠ 
  몮 . ࠦ    p o i n t e r - > m e m b e r
  砥   䨪஬  m e m b e r    ࠭⢠ 
   ⨯ 㪠⥫  p o i n t e r  . ᫥⢨ ᢮
    ࠭  몠    䥪⨢
  ॠ    筮-஢ ⠡ 
   ।  ᯮ   ࠧ ࠭ .

     ++ ࠭ 筮-஢   몠
  ,  頥   (᪫ ⪨)   ࠭⢮
  . ਬ, ᠭ  s t r u c t  T  {   }  T; ஥
   ⨯  s t r u c t  T   ꥪ  T    , 
    ++.    ⮬, 类   
  ꥤ । ᢮  ,  ன
   童  (ꥤ).  筮 ⮩
  窥 ७  ,     ꥤ ।
   ࠭⢮ . ⨪, , ⫨砥 :  
  ࠦ  o b j e c t . m e m b e r  砥,   m e m b e r
    ⥪饩  ,  筮
  ᭨   ⨯ ६  o b e j c t ;    ++
  m e m b e r     ⤥쭮  , 㯭
  ।⢮  ⨯ ६   o b j e c t .

      ᥬ᪠ ࠧ  ࠭⢮  
    易⥫쭮  ࠧ ॠ
  樨 롮 童 , ⠪    砥  窨
  ७   䥪. , ++    
  .      ᬠਢ  
  ⨯ , த   ꥤ,   ⥫묨
  ﬨ.   ꥤ  
  ᯥ樠묨 ﬨ ᮢ.  ᯥ᪨ ࠪ⨪
  ᮢ ++ - ⠢騥 㭪樨 (*1), ஦  -
  ᨫ쭮 ⥯   ⢮   
  (, ꥤ).
__________________________
 (*1)   㭪樨,   童  (member  functions).
      ਬ.ॢ稪.

      ++     ᥡ 童 , 
  㭪ﬨ.  ⠢饩 㭪樨 뢠  
   ⮣ , 童 ண  , ⠪ 
   , ᮤঠ騩  童 , 㦠 ⥫
  㭪樨 ( ଠ ࠬ 㭪樨   ᠬ 譨
   ⭮襭  ⥫ 㭪樨 ).  ਬ 1 ।⠢
  ⠢ 㭪. ⠪᪠   :: f
  ᯮ   ::  祭 ⮣,   f
   童  . 䨪 i, 㯮  ⥫ 㭪樨
  f, ⭮  童  C,    쭮 ६ i.
  㭪樨 ⠪   ।  ⥫ .

     int i;
     class C {
           int  i;
           void f ();                             (1)
     };
     void C::f () { ... = i };


     ਬ (2)   ᮤন  童 : 楫 ६ i 
  㭪 f. ᠭ 㦥⢥ 㭪樨 (*1)  ࠥ 
   몠 ++  뢠 ଠ樨,   ⭮
   ⥬ . 筮 ,  㦥⢥ 㭪 
   童   , ⠪ ࠧ, 䨪 i 
   ⥫ ⭮  쭮 ६ i. ⨬ ⠪, 
   㭪樨       䨪, ᪮
   室  ࠧ  ,  ⠢ 㭪
  室     ,   ६  ⠢
  㭪 -  쭮  . ⨪ ⠢饩
  㭪樨  f  筠 ᥬ⨪ ⠢饩 㭪樨 ਬ 1.

     int   i;
     class C  {
           int    i;                                 (2)
           void  f ()  { ... = i;  }
           friend void f ()  { ... = i;  }
     };

          ஦  㣮. ஦ 
  ᫥ 童 ᢮      ᢮
  ᮡ⢥ 童.   , ,  㤥 
   ஦ , ᫨   䨪 㤥
  ᯮ짮  ஦ .  ਬ 3  D ஦
    B.  ⥫ ⠢饩 㭪樨 f 祭 童
    j ᢠ 童 ஦  i.
  ஦  室    ᢮  .

     class B {
           public:
                 int   i, j;
     };
     class D : B {                                    (3)
           int  i;
           void f() { i = j; }
     };
_____________________________________________________________
 (*1) 㦥⢥ 㭪 (friend function)   
      童 ,  ᠬ   童 .
      ਬ.ॢ稪.

           .

     室 ॠ ⠡ ᨬ, ᭮ 
  樮 拉     ++,
  ।⠢ ᮡ  易 ⠡,  
  ᢮ ᮡ⢥ ன.  ⫨砥  筮 室
   ॠ樨    ⭮ ⠡  
  ᫮묨 ࠢ 㯠  祭.   
   ⠡: 쭠,   㭪樨.

      ⠡ 뢠    ன
  㣮 ⠡  뫠   ⠡ ।⢮ 㪠⥫
   "த⥫". ᮪ ⠡, 砥   
  "த⥫᪨" 㪠⥫   ⠡,  
   ,  ன   ⠡.

    1. 쭠   த⥫. (,  "⮣" த⥫).
    2. ⥫ ⠡ ஦   쭠
       ⠡. ⥫ ⠡ ஦   ⠡
         .
    3. ⥫ ⠡ ⠢饩 㭪樨  쭠
       ⠡. ⥫ ⠢饩 㭪樨  ⠡ ,
       童 ண  㭪.

    ਬ 4 뢠 室  ॠ樨 ⥩
  . ᫥⥫쭮 ⠡, ।⠢ 
       祪 ணࠬ  ਬ 4 ⠪ :

       1:  B, global
       2:  f1, global
       3:  C1, global
       4:  C2, B, global
       5:  f2, global
       6:  f3, C2, B, global
       7:  f4, C1, global

    ਬ,  窥 6   ।⠢
  ᫥⥫쭮 ⠡, 饩  ⠡ 㭪樨 f3
  ⠡ ᮢ 2  쭮 ⠡.

     class B {  /* 1 */  } ;
     void f1()
     {  /* 2 */
        class C1
        {  /* 3 */
           class C2 : B
           {  /* 4 */                             (4)
              friend void f2() { /* 5 */ }
              void        f3() { /* 6 */ }
            };
            void f4() { /* 7 */ }
        };
     }

      ਬ 뢠,   ++ ᪠ 
  ᥬ᪠ (  室饩 ᫥⥫쭮) 
  ࠧ. ਬ,  2,  ᪨   
  1  室     1,  뢠 
  ⮬  ஢ ,    1. 㦥⢥ 㭪 f2
    2 뢠  쭮 ஢ ,  
      2. ⨬ ⠪, ,  㭪樨 
  ++   ᪨ 묨, ⥬    ᮮ⢥⢨
   ࠢ  த⥫᪨ ⠡    㭪樨
  ᫠   ⨢樨 㣮. ⮬ ᪠
   㭪権    ᮡ 室 প
    ६ ᯮ.

      樨    ६  ᥬ᪮
   ।⠢ 㪠⥫  ⥪ ⠡.
  筮  㪠⥫, ⠪  "த⥫"   ⠡
  ।   ᮧ ᫥.  ਬ 4 
  易  ⠡ ᨬ  窥 4 ணࠬ
  ਬ 4.   ।⠢ 㪠⥫  ⠡,
  騥 ਡ⠬  , , ꥤ 
  ⠡  筮 ࠭᫨஢ 㭪権. 㭪 
  ।⠢ த⥫᪨ 裡, ନ騥  
  ணࠬ. "騩" 㪠⥫    
  ⥪騩  樨.  ਬ 2 -  ,  
  ⠡,  饥 ਡ⮬ 㭪樨   f1. ,
   ਡ⮬  2  ⢥ த⥫  ⠡,
   ਡ⮬   .
     ⢥⢨  ᪮  ᥬ᪮ 
  ন ⥪ ᪮ .  ᮮࠦ
  䥪⨢  쭮 㤮 ॠ뢠 ⥪ ᪮
   ⤥쭮   ⥪ প ᨭ⠪᪮
  .  室    ᪮ 
  㪠⥫, ।⠢騩  ᥬ᪮ ,
  뫠  ⥪.  室   ᪮ 
  ।騩 㪠⥫  ᥬ᪮ 
  ⠫  ⥪.

     _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
    !                               !
       _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
    ! !                 !           !
         _ _ _ _ _
    ! ! !         !     !           !
                     _ _ _ _ _
    ! ! !         ! !   !     !     !
    v v v
   -------
  !       !       ! !   !     !     !
  !_______!         v
  !       !      -----
  !      !---->!     ! !     !     !
  !_______!     !     !
  !       !     !_____! !     !     !
  !       !
  !       !      class  !     !     !
  !_______!
  !       !          -------
  !  f1   !-------->!       ! !     !
  !_______!         !_______!     -----
  !       !         !       ! !  !     !
  !_______!         !  1   !--->!     !
  !       !         !_______! !  !_____!       _______
  !  f2   !         !       !                 !       !
  !_______!         !       ! !   class       !current!      (5)
  !       !         !       !                 !_______!
  !_______!         !       ! ! _ _ _ _ _ _ _     !
                    !       !    ! !         !    !
   global            -------       v              !
                    !       !   -----             !
                    !  2   !->!     !       !    !
                    !_______!  !_____!            v
                    !       !  !     !         ------
                    !_______!  ! f3  !------->!      !
                               !_____!        !      !
                    function   !     !        !______!
                               !_____!
                                              function
                                class

        .

       ⠡ ॠ ᢮ ᮡ⢥ ,
   ᥬ⨪ ᪠  祭.  ᪠ 
  譥 ஢ ⮨   ᬮ ⠡, ⠢
    .  ⠡  ᯨ᪥ ॠ
  ᮡ⢥ ᥬ⨪ ।, 室    ⠡
   . ਬ, 砥 ⮣ ᪠ ⤥쭮 
  ᯨ᮪ ࠥ  ⥪饩 ⠡  쭮. 뫪 
  p o i n t e r - > m e m b e r     ⢨  ᯨ᪮
  ⠡, 饩 ਡ⮬  ⨯  p o i n t e r
        ,   , 쭮 ⠡. ᯮ짮
   , ਬ, c l a s s n a m e :: m e m b e r ,
  ।   ᯨ, 稭饬  ⠡, 饩
  ਡ⮬  c l a s s n a m e.

     ᠬ 쭮 ⠡ ॠ ⮩ 
  ᪠ ;  쭮 ஢     
  䨪   ᯮ짮 , 祬  
  .
     ⠡  ᮡ࠭  童 ,  
  ꥤ.  ࣠ 筮 쭮 ⠡.
     ⠡ 㭪権 ॠ 筮-஢
  室   . ⨬,   樮 窨
  ७, ਭ⮩ ஬,   । 
   ; ᪮॥, 筠   ᢮⢮ 
    㭪樨.
      ᥬ⨪ ⠡ 㭪樨 筮 ਢ쭠
   ᭥. 筠  ॠ ।⢮
  ᯮ짮 , 뢠    .
      㪠⥫   ,
  饣 ,  ⮩ 㪠⥫ ( , 饣
  ⥫ 㭪樨).  㭪樨 ন 㪠⥫ 
   ⨢    . ᫥⥫쭮,
  祭 ᫥  ᯨ   㪠⥫ ⥪饣
    㪠⥫  騥  ।⠢, ⠪
  ࠧ, ⥪ ⨢    .
      室   १ࢨ , 㪠⥫
   騩  ⠭ ⠪, ⮡ 㪠뢠 
  ⥪騩 .   ⠭ ⥪騬.  室  ,
   ⥪饣  ⠭ 㠫,  ⥪騬
  ⠭ , 騩 .  ࠧ,  
  宦    室    樨 㭪樨,
  ⠡ 㭪樨 ন n-୮ ॢ  ,
  ।⠢ ᮡ   ࠬ ⥪ 㭪樨.
  室 ᫥⥫쭮  ॢ  㪠⥫ ⥪饣
      ⥪ ⨢    .
   ᫥⢨ 믮 ᬮ ॢ   ਭ
   । ࠬ ⥪ 㭪樨.
      ᪥     室  
  饭  -⠡. ࠢ 祭  㤠  
  ⠡ ࠭,  ࢮ    ࠢ
  䨪஬ ⭮  ᠬ ७ .

                           .

     襮ᠭ 室  ஡    ++
  ॠ । ⠡  ࠪ⭮ ⨯ .
   ⮬ 砥 ᪠ த    ६ 樨
    ⢥ ࠧ ।⠢ ⢨ 
  ᪨ ᮧ묨 ꥪ⠬ ⥩ .
     ।⠢ ⥩   ꥪ⮢ 
  ।⢥ ⮡ࠧ ⢥  ᯥ 
    ++.  ਬ,    ६ 
   ᮬ  ⢠ 㣨 ᮢ. ᫨
  ᬠਢ ꥪ ⥩   設 ,
  ॡࠬ ண  㪠⥫  ⠡ த⥫,
  ᠭ ,   ᮢ B, D1  D2  ਬ 6 
  ࠧ ।⠢   ॢ, 㧫 ண 
  ꥪ ⥩ .

     class B  { } ;
     class D1 : B { };
     void f()
     {                                             (6)
        class D2 : B  {  };
     }


      ।⠢  ⠪  ࠧ
    ᥬ .  ਬ 6 
    㭪樨  ⠢ ꥪ  
  㭪樨  D2    娨 ᮢ. ᪮  ଠ
     㭪樨 ᬠਢ  ᢮⢮ 
  ꥪ, ⠪ ࠧ    ᯥ祭 ⥬
  ⮣ 饭 ꥪ   㭪樨  㦭
    .  室  ᫮ ⬥ ᪠,
  室饬   㭪樨  ᪥ 童  D2.

      窠 ७     ꥪ 
  襭  ॠ樨 筮   ᢮⢠ 
   㭪樨,  ।⠢    
  ⤥쭮 ⠡.  ᢮⢠ 㭪樨   
  ⢥ ⥬ 祭  ꥪ, ॠ饣 ⠡
  㭪樨, 祬  ꥪ, ॠ饣 ⠡ . ଠ
  ⠪ த,   ࠬ ⥪  ⪨, 
  ᢮⢮  ꥪ, ॠ饣 ⠡ 㭪樨,  
   室 뫮      ꥪ⮢,
  ॠ ⠡ .

                      .

      +   । . 
    ⠢饩 㭪樨,   ⨢ 
  ᢮ ꥪ,  ᫥ 室  । 
  . ᫥⥫쭮 ⨢樨 ஢  室
      ⭠  ⭮襭 
  ᫥⥫쭮,  ன 﫨 ꥪ, 騥
  㭨⮦.
     ᠭ   ਬ 7 ᮤন ᠭ .
      , ஬ ।
  ⨫줠.  㭪樨 f  ~  ⨢  ꥪ⮢ c  b ।
  ஬  c o n t i n u e ,    b    a - ।  r e t u r n ;
    b -   , 饣 ஬   w h i l e  , 
  a -   , 饣 ⥫ 㭪樨.

     class C
     {
        ~C() {  /*   */  }
     };
     void f (int i)
     {  C   a ;                                       (7)
        while (i--)
        {   C  b ;
            if (i)
            {  C  c ;
               ...
               continue;
            }
            else
            return;
        }
     }


     砠 ।  ᫥⥫쭮 ⨢樨
  ஢  室     ᮧ
  㤭  窨 ७ 䥪⨢ ࠭樨.  ++
  ணࠬ   ᯮ ,   ६  
  㣨 設⢮ ꥪ⮢  . 室, ਭ 
  , 砥  ⮬,   ଠ ᮤন 
   , ⤥  ⠡ ᨬ.
   ᮮ⭮ ࠭⢥  ६ ᫮ ।
  ᫥⥫쭮⥩ ⨢樨 ஢ ᪮॥  ᫮
  ꥪ⮢,  ⠪, 祬  騬 ⢮ .
     ࠫ쭮  ⠡ 㭪樨  ন
  ॢ , 뢠 " ஢" ⮩
  㭪樨.  ᨬ ᮤন 㪠⥫  ⠪ ,
  ᯮ㥬  祭 ଠ樨 (᫥⥫쭮
  ꥪ⮢,     ⨢஢ ), 
  ᠬ ॢ ஢  ᨬ  ⠡ ᨬ.

      אַ㣮쭨    ਬ 8 ⮡ࠦ
    ⠡ 㭪樨. ⪨ d1 - d5 ।⠢
  ᮡ  ꥪ  ஬   . ॢ
  ஢, ஥ 㤥 ஥   樨
     ꥪ⮢, ਢ  ࠢ  ਬ 8.
      ⠡ 㭪樨  㪠⥫  ᮮ⢥
   ᢮ ॢ ஢.  窠 樠
   祭.   ꥪ  騬 
  ⨯, १ࢨ  ॢ ஢  㪠⥫ 
  ꥪ  㪠⥫  ⥪   ॢ.  
  ॢ ⠭ ⥬ ⥪饩 窮.

     筠  㭪樨   ॢ ஢
    䥪  宦  室  . 
     㪠⥫, ⠭  宦 
    ⥪  ॢ ஢.  室  
  ⥪騩 㪠⥫ ⠭   ࠭ .
   ࠧ, ॢ ஢ ᮧ ⠪, ⮡
  ⮡ࠦ   㭪樨. ⨬ ⠪,  ॢ
  ஢  ࠧ   室;   ஢
  ⮫쪮 㧫, ᪮쪮  ꥪ⮢  ࠬ,
  ᨬ  ⮣,  ᪮쪨  ⮨ 㭪. ୥
  ॢ ஢  ⮩ 㧥.
      ॢ ஢ ᮧ  쭮
  ⠡  ࠢ ࠬ ꥪ⮢  쭮
  ஢ , , ᪮ 쭮 ࠭⢮ 
  ࠢ୮, ॢ ᥣ 㤥  ᯨ᪮.
       ꥪ   ⨢஢,  ⮪
  ࠢ ணࠬ   ,  ன ꥪ
  ।.
     ⮩ 砩 ந室,  ⮪ ࠢ 室 
  ।  ( , 騩 ⥫ 㭪樨, 
  楯㠫 ,   䠩).  ⮬ 砥 ,
   室 -  ன  ᯨ 㧫  ⥪饩 窨
  ॢ  窨, ।塞 㪠⥫   , 
  ᣥ஢ , १⮬ ண  ६ ᯮ 㤥
  ⨢ ஢. ⨬,   ४⭠
  ᫥⥫쭮 ⨢樨 ஢  
  ᯨ᪮, 祭  ॢ ஢.  ᫥  ⮣
  ⥫⢠,  筠  㭪樨 ⮡ࠦ  
  ॢ ஢   ⨢   窥 㭪樨
  ନ ⥪  ॢ .

     _________________
    !                 !
    !  _____________  !
    ! !             ! !
    ! !     d1      ! !            _____           ______
    ! !  _________  ! !           !     !         !      !
    ! ! !         ! ! !           !_____!         !______!
    ! ! !   d2    ! ! !           !     !         !      !
    ! ! !_________! ! !           ! d1  !         !  d5  !
    ! !             ! !           !_____!         !______!       (8)
    ! !     d3      ! !             /\
    ! !  _________  ! !            /  \
    ! ! !         ! ! !           /    \
    ! ! !   d4    ! ! !          /      \
    ! ! !_________! ! !         /        \
    ! !             ! !        /          \
    ! !_____________! !   _______       _______
    !                 !  !       !     !       !
    !  _____________  !  !_______!     !_______!
    ! !             ! !  !       !     !       !
    ! !  _________  ! !  !  d2   !     !  d3   !
    ! ! !         ! ! !  !_______!     !_______!
    ! ! !  _____  ! ! !                    !
    ! ! ! !     ! ! ! !                    !
    ! ! ! ! d5  ! ! ! !                    !
    ! ! ! !_____! ! ! !                    !
    ! ! !         ! ! !                    !
    ! ! !_________! ! !                    !
    ! !             ! !                 _______
    ! !_____________! !                !       !
    !                 !                !_______!
    !_________________!                !       !
                                       !  d4   !
                                       !_______!

       b r e a k      c o n t i n u e  ⠪ 뢠
  室   ,  ࠡ뢠  
  ࠧ. ७ ।⠢, ᯮ㥬   
  b r e a k        c o n t i n u e ,  ᮤন 㪠⥫   
  ॢ ஢,  뫠 ⥪饩  ,  
  祭  b r e a k       c o n t i n u e .  ,
  騥 ⨢樨  ꥪ⮢  ஢  b r e a k  
  c o n t i n u e ,  室  ᯨ᪥  ⮩ 窨  窨,
  ᠭ   ᠬ 譥 ,  室 
   . (⨬,   ᥣ ࠭ )
  ⨢ ஢    r e t u r n  ;
  ⨢    窨, ᮮ⢥饩 
  r e t u r n     ॢ ஢. ⨢
  ஢     g o t o     㤮,
  ⠪  室    ⭮襭  筮 
  㭪樨. ᬮਬ ࠣ   ਬ 9. ᫨   
   ஬, ⨢    ७ ।
  ஬  g o t o . (⨬,  ++ ,  ⫨稥  ,
  ᬠਢ ᠭ  ).

     label:      C obj;
           ...                                      (9)
           goto label;

     ஡ ⮨  ।   ॢ ஢, 
  ᫥    g o t o   ᢮ 楫,  ⨢樨
  ஢   ꥪ⮢  ॢ,  ᯮ
   室 ⪠ . ਬ, ᫨  g o t o  ।
  ࠢ    譥 ஢ ,  
  㤥 室騬, ᫨  g o t o  । ࠢ 
  ७ ஢,     㤥 室饩. 
  । ࠢ  易묨 ﬨ 
  ஡ ⮨  宦 襣 饣 ।  ॢ
  ஢     g o t o    ⪮   ⨢樨
  ஢     g o t o    ⮩ 窥.  
    ஦묨 ਠ⠬ ᫥.
      砥 ⠭ 㪠⥫  ⥪ 
  ॢ ஢  ७ ।⠢   g o t o   
  ⮪,  宦 襣 饣 ।  ॢ ஢.


                           

      ଠ樨   ᢮ ᮢ 
  C+ ॡ  ⥩ ,  ᫨誮 ᫮,
  ⮡    뫮 ࠧ  筮 ⠡
  ᨬ 몠 . 室, ਭ  , 砥 
  । ࠧ  ⥩ ⨨ 祭  
  ꥪ.  ⥩  ++ ணࠬ  
  䥪⨢ ।⠢ ⢨  ⠪ ꥪ⠬.
     饭, ⭮襭 ꥪ⮢ ணࠬ,
   ,  筮  㭪権 ஢ 
   , ᨬ  ⠫쭮 ⠡ ᨬ.
   ࠧ  㬥 ६  ࠭⢥
  প  । ᫥⥫쭮 ⨢樨
  ஢, ⠪  ⮫쪮 ꥪ  ࠬ  
  ।⠢  ॢ,  ⮫쪮  ଠ  ,
   ᠥ  ᯮ 㧫  ॢ
  ஢,  室.


                           

 1. B.Stroustrup The C++  Programming  Language.
      Addison-Wesle Reading Massachusetts. 1986.

 2. B.W.Kernighan and D.M.Ritchi.  The  Programing Language,
    Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1978.

 3. Draft Proposed American National Standart for Information
    Systems - Programming Language C, X3J11/86-017.
